Science (from the Latin scientia, 'knowledge') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of knowledge gained through such research.[1][2] Science as defined here is sometimes termed pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:
natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life), and
social sciences, which study human behavior and societies.
These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.[3]
Mathematics, which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences.[2] It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods.[4] Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws,[5] both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
Contents[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Scientific method
3 Philosophy of science
4 Mathematics and the scientific method
5 Goal(s) of science
5.1 What the goal is not
6 Scientific literature
7 Fields of science
8 Scientific institutions
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
//
Etymology
The word science comes through the Old French, and is derived from the Latin word scientia for knowledge, which in turn comes from scio. 'I know'. The Indo-European root means to discern or to separate, akin to Sanskrit chyati, he cuts off, Greek schizein, to split, Latin scindere, to split.[6] From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia meant any systematic recorded knowledge.[7] Science therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to science also carries this meaning.
From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into natural philosophy and moral philosophy. In the 1800s, the term natural philosophy gradually gave way to the term natural science. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the physical sciences and biological sciences. The social sciences, inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use empirical methods. As currently understood, moral philosophy still retains the study of ethics, regarded as a branch of philosophy.
Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to empirical study involving use of the scientific method.[8]
Scientific method
Main article: Scientific method
The Bohr model of the atom, like many ideas in the history of science, was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.
The scientific method seeks to explain the complexities of nature in a replicable way, and to use these explanations to make useful predictions. It provides an objective process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and technological fields. Often scientists have a preference for one outcome over another, and scientists are conscientious that it is important that this preference does not bias their interpretation. A strict following of the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. This can be achieved by correct experimental design, and a thorough peer review of the experimental results as well as conclusions of a study.
Scientists use models to refer to a description or depiction of something, specifically one which can be used to make predictions that can be tested by experiment or observation. A hypothesis is a contention that has been neither well supported nor yet ruled out by experiment. A theory, in the context of science, is a logically self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis—commonly, a large number of hypotheses may be logically bound together by a single theory. A physical law or law of nature is a scientific generalization based on a sufficiently large number of empirical observations that it is taken as fully verified.
Scientists never claim absolute knowledge of nature or the behavior of the subject of the field of study. Unlike a mathematical proof, a scientific theory is empirical, and is always open to falsification, if new evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them. Critical to this process is making every relevant aspect of research publicly available, which permits peer review of published results, and also allows ongoing review and repeating of experiments and observations by multiple researchers operating independently of one another. Only by fulfilling these expectations can it be determined how reliable the experimental results are for potential use by others.
Isaac Newton's Newtonian law of gravitation is a famous example of an established law that was later found not to be universal—it does not hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the speed of light or in close proximity of strong gravitational fields. Outside these conditions, Newton's Laws remain an excellent model of motion and gravity. Since general relativity accounts for all the same phenomena that Newton's Laws do and more, general relativity is now regarded as a more comprehensive theory.
Philosophy of science
Main article: Philosophy of science
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive account of the scientific method that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the scientific community at large. (see: Problem of demarcation)
Science is reasoned-based analysis of sensation upon our awareness. As such, the scientific method cannot deduce anything about the realm of reality that is beyond what is observable by existing or theoretical means. When a manifestation of our reality previously considered supernatural is understood in the terms of causes and consequences, it acquires a scientific explanation.
Resting on reason and logic, along with other guidelines such as parsimony, scientific theories are formulated and repeatedly tested by analyzing how the collected evidence compares to the theory. Some of the findings of science can be very counter-intuitive. Atomic theory, for example, implies that a granite boulder which appears a heavy, hard, solid, grey object is actually a combination of subatomic particles with none of these properties, moving very rapidly in space where the mass is concentrated in a very small fraction of the total volume. Many of humanity's preconceived notions about the workings of the universe have been challenged by new scientific discoveries. Quantum mechanics, particularly, examines phenomena that seem to defy our most basic postulates about causality and fundamental understanding of the world around us. Science is the branch of knowledge dealing with people and the understanding we have of our environment and how it works.
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of scientific method. Methodological naturalism maintains that scientific investigation must adhere to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for observable phenomena. Methodological naturalism, therefore, rejects supernatural explanations, arguments from authority and biased observational studies. Critical rationalism instead holds that unbiased observation is not possible and a demarcation between natural and supernatural explanations is arbitrary; it instead proposes falsifiability as the landmark of empirical theories and falsification as the universal empirical method. Critical rationalism argues for the primacy of science, but at the same time against its authority, by emphasizing its inherent fallibility. It proposes that science should be content with the rational elimination of errors in its theories, not in seeking for their verification (such as claiming certain or probable proof or disproof; both the proposal and falsification of a theory are only of methodological, conjectural, and tentative character in critical rationalism). Instrumentalism rejects the concept of truth and emphasizes merely the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.
Mathematics and the scientific method
Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate.
Mathematics is essential to many sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in science include calculus and statistics, although virtually every branch of mathematics has applications, even "pure" areas such as number theory and topology. Mathematics is fundamental to the understanding of the natural sciences and the social sciences, all of which rely heavily on statistics. Statistical methods, comprised of accepted mathematical formulas for summarizing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results.
Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. In practice, mathematical theorems and formulas are obtained by logical derivations which presume axiomatic systems, rather than a combination of empirical observation and method of reasoning that has come to be known as scientific method. In general, mathematics is classified as formal science, while natural and social sciences are classified as empirical sciences.
Goal(s) of science
This section does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
This article has been tagged since July 2007.
The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce useful models of reality. To achieve this, one can form hypotheses based on observations that they make in the world. By analyzing a number of related hypotheses, scientists can form general theories. These theories benefit society or human individuals who make use of them.
In short, science produces models with useful predictions. Science attempts to describe what is, but avoids trying to determine what is (which is for practical reasons impossible). Science is a useful tool. . . it is a growing body of understanding by which one can contend more effectively with surroundings and to better adapt and evolve as a social whole as well as independently.
For a large part of recorded history, science had little bearing on people's everyday lives. Scientific knowledge was gathered for its own sake, and it had few practical applications. However, with the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, this rapidly changed. Today, science has a profound effect on the way humans interact with and act upon nature, largely through its applications in new technology.
Some forms of technology have become so well established that it is easy to forget the great scientific achievements that they represent. The refrigerator, for example, owes its existence to a discovery that liquids take in energy when they evaporate, a phenomenon known as latent heat. The principle of latent heat was first exploited in a practical way in 1876, and the refrigerator has played a major role in maintaining public health ever since (see Refrigeration). The first automobile, dating from the 1880s, made use of many advances in physics and engineering, including reliable ways of generating high-voltage sparks, while the first computers emerged in the 1940s from simultaneous advances in electronics and mathematics.
Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne.
Other fields of science also play an important role in the things the developed world use or consume every day. Research in food technology has created new ways of preserving and flavoring of edible products (see Food processing). Research in industrial chemistry has created a vast range of plastics and other synthetic materials, which have thousands of uses in the home and in industry. Synthetic materials are easily formed into complex shapes and can be used to make machine, electrical, and automotive parts, scientific and industrial instruments, decorative objects, containers, and many other items.
Alongside these achievements, science has also brought about technology that helps save human and non-human life. The kidney dialysis machine enables many people to survive kidney diseases that would once have proved fatal, and artificial valves allow sufferers of coronary heart disease to return to active living. Biochemical research is responsible for the antibiotics and vaccinations that protect living things from infectious diseases, and for a wide range of other drugs used to combat specific health problems. As a result, the majority of people in the developed world live longer and healthier lives than ever before.
However, scientific discoveries can also have a negative impact in human affairs. Over the last hundred years, some of the technological advances that make life easier or more enjoyable have proved to have unwanted and often unexpected long-term effects. Industrial and agricultural chemicals pollute the global environment, even in places as remote as Antarctica, and the air in many cities is contaminated by toxic gases from vehicle exhausts (see Pollution). The increasing pace of innovation means that products become rapidly obsolete, adding to a rising tide of waste (see Solid Waste Disposal). Most significantly of all, the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas releases into the atmosphere carbon dioxide and other substances known as greenhouse gases. These gases have altered the composition of the entire atmosphere, producing global warming and the prospect of major climate change in years to come.
Science has also been used to develop technology that raises complex ethical questions. This is particularly true in the fields of biology and medicine (see Medical Ethics). Research involving genetic engineering, cloning, and in vitro fertilization gives scientists the unprecedented power to bring about new life, or to devise new forms of living things. At the other extreme, science can also generate technology that is designed to deliberately hurt or to kill. The fruits of this research include chemical and biological warfare, and also nuclear weapons, by far the most destructive weapons that the world has ever known.
Friday, August 10, 2007
Maradona - God of soccer
Diego Maradona
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Diego Maradona
Personal information
Full name
Diego Armando Maradona
Date of birth
October 30, 1960 (1960-10-30) (age 46)
Place of birth
Villa Fiorito, Argentina
Height
1.65 m (5 ft 5 in)
Playing position
Supporting striker,Attacking Midfielder
Youth clubs
1970–76
Argentinos Juniors
Senior clubs1
Years
Club
App (Gls)*
1976–19811981–19821982–19841984–19911992–199319931995–1997
Argentinos JuniorsBoca JuniorsFC BarcelonaSSC NapoliSevilla FCNewell's Old BoysBoca JuniorsCareer
168 (116)0400(28)0580(38)2590(115)02900(7)00700(0)03100(7)592 (311)
National team
1977–94
Argentina
0910(34)
1 Senior club appearances and goalscounted for the domestic league only.* Appearances (Goals)
Diego Armando Maradona (born October 30, 1960) is an Argentine former footballer. He played in four World Cups and received a FIFA award: FIFA Player of the Century, after being voted, in 2000 in an international internet fan poll organized by FIFA, the best football player of all time.[1]
Maradona won many trophies with Boca Juniors, FC Barcelona and SSC Napoli over the course of his career. During an international career that included 91 caps and 34 goals, he played in four FIFA World Cup tournaments, leading the Argentina national team to its victory over West Germany in 1986 World Cup, in which he collected the Golden Ball award as the tournament's best player. His second goal against England in the quarter-finals of the '86 tournament -- a spectacular 60-meter weave through six England players -- is commonly referred to as "The Goal of the Century." or, in Argentina, "The Cosmic Kite" (El barrilete cosmico in Spanish).
He is also considered one of the sport's most controversial figures. Maradona was suspended for 15 months in 1991 after a failed doping test for cocaine in Italy, and then again for ephedrine during the 1994 World Cup in USA.
After retirement from professional football on 30 October 1997,[2] he suffered ill health and weight gain, along with ongoing cocaine abuse. However, a stomach-stapling operation helped control his weight gain. Since overcoming his cocaine addiction, he has become a TV host in Argentina.[3]
Contents[hide]
1 Early years
2 Playing style
3 Club career
3.1 The Napoli era
4 International career
4.1 1982 World Cup
4.2 1986 World Cup
4.3 1990 World Cup
4.4 1994 World Cup
5 Retirement and honours
6 Personal agents
7 Personal life
8 Drug abuse and health situation
9 Political views
10 Reputation
11 Career statistics
11.1 Club
11.2 International
12 Honours
12.1 Club honours
12.2 International honours
12.3 Individual honours
13 Coaching career
14 Trivia
15 References
16 External links
//
[edit] Early years
Diego Armando Maradona was born in Villa Fiorito, a shantytown on the southern outskirts of Buenos Aires,[4] to a poor family that had moved from Corrientes Province. He was the first son after three daughters. He has two younger brothers, Hugo (el Turco) and Eduardo (Lalo), both of whom were also professional football players.
At age 11, Maradona was spotted by a talent scout while he was playing in his neighborhood club Estrella Roja. He became a staple of Los Cebollitas (The Little Onions), the junior team of Buenos Aires's Argentinos Juniors. As a 12-year-old ball boy, he amused spectators by showing his wizardry with the ball during the halftime intermissions of first division games.[5]
[edit] Playing style
Maradona had a compact physique and could withstand physical pressure well. His strong legs and low center of gravity gave him an advantage in short sprints. His physical strengths were illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup. Maradona was a strategist and a team player, as well as highly technical with the ball. He could manage himself effectively in limited spaces, and would attract defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second 1986 goal against England),[6] or give an assist to a free teammate. Being short, but strong, he could hold the ball long enough with a defender on his back to wait for a teammate making a run or to find a gap for a quick shot.
One of Maradona's trademark moves was dribbling full-speed as a left wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering lethally accurate passes to his teammates. Another trademark was the Rabona, a reverse-cross pass shot behind the leg that holds all the weight. This maneuver led to several assists, such as the powerful cross for Ramón Díaz's header in the 1980 friendly against Switzerland. He was also a dangerous free kick taker.
[edit] Club career
Maradona's Boca 1981 match-worn shirt. In his first season with his favorite team, he won the Argentine Apertura Metropolitan league.
Maradona made his professional debut on October 20, 1976 ten days before his sixteenth birthday, with Argentinos Juniors.[2] He played there between 1976 and 1981, before his £1m transfer to the club that he supported, Boca Juniors. Joining the squad midway through the 1981 season, Maradona played through 1982, and secured his first league winners' medal. After the 1982 World Cup, in June, Maradona was transferred to FC Barcelona in Spain for a then world record £5m.[2] In 1983, under coach César Luis Menotti, Barcelona and Maradona won the Copa del Rey (Spain's annual national cup competition), beating Real Madrid. However, Maradona had a difficult tenure in Barcelona.[7] First a bout with hepatitis, then an ill-timed tackle by Athletic Bilbao's Andoni Goikoetxea jeopardized his career,[2] but Maradona's physical strength and willpower made it possible for him to be back on the pitch after only 14 weeks. It is believed that it was while playing for Barcelona that Maradona was introduced to cocaine, to which he would become addicted.[8]
[edit] The Napoli era
Maradona got into frequent disputes with Barcelona's directors, especially club president Josep Lluís Nuñez. In 1984, he demanded a transfer out of Nou Camp. He subsequently went to Serie A and SSC Napoli for another record fee, £6.9m, and became an adored star among the club's fans, as he elevated the team to its most successful era. Napoli won their only Italian Championships (1986/87 and 1989/1990), a Coppa Italia (1987), a UEFA Cup (1989) and an Italian Supercup (1990). Napoli were also runners-up in the Italian Championship twice, in 1987/88 and 1988/89.
In Naples, Maradona was present for a transformation of the local club. They had traditionally been overshadowed by the teams from the industrial cities in the north, but Maradona's arrival (along with Careca and others) brought them a first scudetto in 1987.[2] A second followed in 1990, along with cup successes. However, Maradona also faced a scandal there regarding an illegitimate son; he was also the object of some suspicion over an alleged friendship with the Camorra.
Maradona left Napoli in 1992, after serving a 15-month ban for failing a drug test for cocaine. He played for Sevilla FC (1992–93), Newell's Old Boys (1993) and Boca Juniors (1995–97).[2] He also attempted to work as a coach on two short stints, leading Mandiyú of Corrientes (1994) and Racing Club (1995), but without much success. He retired from football on October 30, 1997, his 37th birthday.
[edit] International career
Maradona and the Youth World Cup trophy in 1979.
He debuted with the Argentina national football team ("la selección"), at age 16, against Hungary. At age 18, he played the Football World Youth Championship for Argentina, and was the star of the tournament, shining in their 3–1 final win over the USSR team.
[edit] 1982 World Cup
Maradona played his first World Cup tournament in 1982. In the first round, Argentina, the defending champions, lost to Belgium. Although the team convincingly beat Hungary and El Salvador to progress to the second round, they were defeated in the second round by eventual winners Italy. Maradona played in all five matches without being substituted, scoring twice against Hungary, but was sent off with 5 minutes remaining in the game against Brazil for serious foul play.
[edit] 1986 World Cup
Maradona captained the Argentine national team to victory in the 1986 FIFA World Cup, winning the final against West Germany. Throughout the 1986 World Cup, Maradona asserted his dominance and was the most dynamic player of the tournament. He played every minute of every Argentina game, scored 5 goals and made 5 assists. However, it was the two goals he scored in a 2-1 quarter-final win against England which cemented his legend.
Replays showed that the first goal was scored with the aid of his hand. Maradona was coyly evasive, describing it as "a little with the head of Maradona and a little with the hand of God." The play became known as the "Hand of God," or "la mano de Dios." Ultimately, on 22 August 2005 Maradona acknowledged on his television show that he hit the ball with his hand purposely, and that he immediately knew the goal was illegitimate. He recalled thinking right after the goal that
“
I was waiting for my teammates to embrace me, and no one came . . . I told them, 'Come hug me, or the referee isn't going to allow it.'[9]
”
In contrast, Maradona's second goal was a technically pure display of Maradona's astonishing dribbling ability. He picked up the ball in his own half, swiveled around and ran more than half the length of the field, dribbling past five English players: (Glenn Hoddle, Peter Reid, Kenny Sansom, Terry Butcher, and Terry Fenwick) and goalkeeper Peter Shilton. This goal was voted the Goal of the Century in a 2002 online poll conducted by FIFA. In 2002, the two goals were ranked 6th in the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments by the UK's Channel 4 television channel.
Maradona followed this with two more goals in the semifinal against Belgium. In the final, the opposing West German side attempted to contain him by double-marking, but he nevertheless found the space to give the final service to Jorge Burruchaga for the winning goal. Argentina beat West Germany 3-2 and Maradona lifted the World Cup trophy after dominating the tournament in an historic fashion.
[edit] 1990 World Cup
Maradona captained Argentina again in the 1990 FIFA World Cup. An ankle injury affected his overall performance, and he was much less dominant than four years earlier. Argentina were almost eliminated in the first round, only qualifying in third position from their group. In the round of 16 match against Brazil, a Maradona run from his own half set up the opportunity for Claudio Caniggia to score the game's only goal. Argentina then faced Yugoslavia in the quarterfinal round, the match ending 0-0 after 120 minutes, and Argentina advancing on penalty kicks, despite Maradona missing one of the penalties in the shootout. The semifinal against the host nation Italy was also resolved on penalties after a 1-1 draw; this time, Maradona was successful with his effort. In the final, Argentina lost 1-0 to West Germany, the only goal being a penalty by Andreas Brehme in the 85th minute after a controversial foul on Rudi Voller.
[edit] 1994 World Cup
At the 1994 FIFA World Cup Maradona played in two games, scoring one goal against Greece, before being sent home after failing a drug test for ephedrine doping. In his autobiography, Maradona argued that the test result was due to his personal trainer giving him the power drink Rip Fuel. His claim was that the U.S. version, unlike the Argentine one, contained the chemical and that, having run out of his Argentinian dosage, his trainer unwittingly bought the U.S. formula. FIFA subsequently expelled him from USA '94 and the Argentinians, affected by his absence, went home in the second round. Maradona has also separately claimed that he had an agreement with FIFA, on which the organization reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play. According to Maradona, this was so that the World Cup would not lose prestige because of his absence. This allegation was never proved, and many fans attribute his comment ("they cut off my legs") to his anger at being suspended.
[edit] Retirement and honours
In 2000, Maradona published his autobiography Yo Soy El Diego ("I am The Diego"), which became an instant bestseller[10] in his home country. Two years later, Maradona donated the Cuban royalties of his book to "the Cuban people and Fidel."[11]
FIFA conducted a fan poll on the Internet in 2000, to elect the Player of the Century. Maradona finished top of the poll with 53.6% of the vote, due mostly to a huge mobilization of fans in Argentina. Subsequently, however, and contrary to the original announcement of how the award would be decided, FIFA appointed a "Football Family" committee of football experts that voted to award Pelé the title. Maradona protested at the change in procedure, and declared he would not attend the ceremony if Pelé replaced him. Eventually, two awards were made, one to each of the pair. Maradona accepted his prize, but left the ceremony without waiting to see Pelé receive his accolade.[1]
Maradona at the Soccer Aid friendly match in 2006, after losing weight
In 2001, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) asked FIFA for authorization to retire the jersey number 10 for Maradona. FIFA did not grant the request, even though Argentine officials have maintained that FIFA hinted that it would.[12]
Maradona has won other fan polls, including a 2002 FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the best goal ever scored in a World Cup; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team.
Argentinos Juniors named its stadium after Maradona on December 26, 2003.
On 22 June 2005, it was announced that Maradona would return to Boca Juniors as a sports vice president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disappointing 2004–05 season, which coincided with Boca's centenary).[13] His contract began 1 August 2005, and one of his first recommendations proved to be very effective: he was the one who decided to hire Alfio Basile as the new coach. With Maradona fostering a close relationship with the players, Boca went on to win the 2005 Apertura title, the 2006 Clausura title, the 2005 Copa Sudamericana and the 2005 Recopa Sudamericana.
On 15 August 2005, Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, La Noche del 10 ("The Night of the no. 10"). His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences. In subsequent evenings, he led the ratings on all occasions but one. Most guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business, including Zidane, Ronaldo and Hernán Crespo, but also included interviews with other notable personalities such as Fidel Castro and Mike Tyson.
On August 26, 2006, it was announced that Maradona was quitting his position in the club Boca Juniors because of disagreements with the AFA, who selected Basile to be the new coach of the Argentina National Football Team.[14]
The award-winning Serbian filmmaker Emir Kusturica is preparing a documentary about Maradona's life, entitled Maradona. The film is currently in post-production, and its release is expected in 2007. Italian-Australian actor Marco Leonardi has been confirmed to play the footballer in the film.
In September 2006, Maradona, in his famous blue and white number 10, was the captain for Argentina in a three-day World Cup of Indoor Football tournament in Spain. Against Spain, Maradona set up the first goal for Argentina with a lob over the top of the defense for his teammate to head it home.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Diego Maradona
Personal information
Full name
Diego Armando Maradona
Date of birth
October 30, 1960 (1960-10-30) (age 46)
Place of birth
Villa Fiorito, Argentina
Height
1.65 m (5 ft 5 in)
Playing position
Supporting striker,Attacking Midfielder
Youth clubs
1970–76
Argentinos Juniors
Senior clubs1
Years
Club
App (Gls)*
1976–19811981–19821982–19841984–19911992–199319931995–1997
Argentinos JuniorsBoca JuniorsFC BarcelonaSSC NapoliSevilla FCNewell's Old BoysBoca JuniorsCareer
168 (116)0400(28)0580(38)2590(115)02900(7)00700(0)03100(7)592 (311)
National team
1977–94
Argentina
0910(34)
1 Senior club appearances and goalscounted for the domestic league only.* Appearances (Goals)
Diego Armando Maradona (born October 30, 1960) is an Argentine former footballer. He played in four World Cups and received a FIFA award: FIFA Player of the Century, after being voted, in 2000 in an international internet fan poll organized by FIFA, the best football player of all time.[1]
Maradona won many trophies with Boca Juniors, FC Barcelona and SSC Napoli over the course of his career. During an international career that included 91 caps and 34 goals, he played in four FIFA World Cup tournaments, leading the Argentina national team to its victory over West Germany in 1986 World Cup, in which he collected the Golden Ball award as the tournament's best player. His second goal against England in the quarter-finals of the '86 tournament -- a spectacular 60-meter weave through six England players -- is commonly referred to as "The Goal of the Century." or, in Argentina, "The Cosmic Kite" (El barrilete cosmico in Spanish).
He is also considered one of the sport's most controversial figures. Maradona was suspended for 15 months in 1991 after a failed doping test for cocaine in Italy, and then again for ephedrine during the 1994 World Cup in USA.
After retirement from professional football on 30 October 1997,[2] he suffered ill health and weight gain, along with ongoing cocaine abuse. However, a stomach-stapling operation helped control his weight gain. Since overcoming his cocaine addiction, he has become a TV host in Argentina.[3]
Contents[hide]
1 Early years
2 Playing style
3 Club career
3.1 The Napoli era
4 International career
4.1 1982 World Cup
4.2 1986 World Cup
4.3 1990 World Cup
4.4 1994 World Cup
5 Retirement and honours
6 Personal agents
7 Personal life
8 Drug abuse and health situation
9 Political views
10 Reputation
11 Career statistics
11.1 Club
11.2 International
12 Honours
12.1 Club honours
12.2 International honours
12.3 Individual honours
13 Coaching career
14 Trivia
15 References
16 External links
//
[edit] Early years
Diego Armando Maradona was born in Villa Fiorito, a shantytown on the southern outskirts of Buenos Aires,[4] to a poor family that had moved from Corrientes Province. He was the first son after three daughters. He has two younger brothers, Hugo (el Turco) and Eduardo (Lalo), both of whom were also professional football players.
At age 11, Maradona was spotted by a talent scout while he was playing in his neighborhood club Estrella Roja. He became a staple of Los Cebollitas (The Little Onions), the junior team of Buenos Aires's Argentinos Juniors. As a 12-year-old ball boy, he amused spectators by showing his wizardry with the ball during the halftime intermissions of first division games.[5]
[edit] Playing style
Maradona had a compact physique and could withstand physical pressure well. His strong legs and low center of gravity gave him an advantage in short sprints. His physical strengths were illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup. Maradona was a strategist and a team player, as well as highly technical with the ball. He could manage himself effectively in limited spaces, and would attract defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second 1986 goal against England),[6] or give an assist to a free teammate. Being short, but strong, he could hold the ball long enough with a defender on his back to wait for a teammate making a run or to find a gap for a quick shot.
One of Maradona's trademark moves was dribbling full-speed as a left wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering lethally accurate passes to his teammates. Another trademark was the Rabona, a reverse-cross pass shot behind the leg that holds all the weight. This maneuver led to several assists, such as the powerful cross for Ramón Díaz's header in the 1980 friendly against Switzerland. He was also a dangerous free kick taker.
[edit] Club career
Maradona's Boca 1981 match-worn shirt. In his first season with his favorite team, he won the Argentine Apertura Metropolitan league.
Maradona made his professional debut on October 20, 1976 ten days before his sixteenth birthday, with Argentinos Juniors.[2] He played there between 1976 and 1981, before his £1m transfer to the club that he supported, Boca Juniors. Joining the squad midway through the 1981 season, Maradona played through 1982, and secured his first league winners' medal. After the 1982 World Cup, in June, Maradona was transferred to FC Barcelona in Spain for a then world record £5m.[2] In 1983, under coach César Luis Menotti, Barcelona and Maradona won the Copa del Rey (Spain's annual national cup competition), beating Real Madrid. However, Maradona had a difficult tenure in Barcelona.[7] First a bout with hepatitis, then an ill-timed tackle by Athletic Bilbao's Andoni Goikoetxea jeopardized his career,[2] but Maradona's physical strength and willpower made it possible for him to be back on the pitch after only 14 weeks. It is believed that it was while playing for Barcelona that Maradona was introduced to cocaine, to which he would become addicted.[8]
[edit] The Napoli era
Maradona got into frequent disputes with Barcelona's directors, especially club president Josep Lluís Nuñez. In 1984, he demanded a transfer out of Nou Camp. He subsequently went to Serie A and SSC Napoli for another record fee, £6.9m, and became an adored star among the club's fans, as he elevated the team to its most successful era. Napoli won their only Italian Championships (1986/87 and 1989/1990), a Coppa Italia (1987), a UEFA Cup (1989) and an Italian Supercup (1990). Napoli were also runners-up in the Italian Championship twice, in 1987/88 and 1988/89.
In Naples, Maradona was present for a transformation of the local club. They had traditionally been overshadowed by the teams from the industrial cities in the north, but Maradona's arrival (along with Careca and others) brought them a first scudetto in 1987.[2] A second followed in 1990, along with cup successes. However, Maradona also faced a scandal there regarding an illegitimate son; he was also the object of some suspicion over an alleged friendship with the Camorra.
Maradona left Napoli in 1992, after serving a 15-month ban for failing a drug test for cocaine. He played for Sevilla FC (1992–93), Newell's Old Boys (1993) and Boca Juniors (1995–97).[2] He also attempted to work as a coach on two short stints, leading Mandiyú of Corrientes (1994) and Racing Club (1995), but without much success. He retired from football on October 30, 1997, his 37th birthday.
[edit] International career
Maradona and the Youth World Cup trophy in 1979.
He debuted with the Argentina national football team ("la selección"), at age 16, against Hungary. At age 18, he played the Football World Youth Championship for Argentina, and was the star of the tournament, shining in their 3–1 final win over the USSR team.
[edit] 1982 World Cup
Maradona played his first World Cup tournament in 1982. In the first round, Argentina, the defending champions, lost to Belgium. Although the team convincingly beat Hungary and El Salvador to progress to the second round, they were defeated in the second round by eventual winners Italy. Maradona played in all five matches without being substituted, scoring twice against Hungary, but was sent off with 5 minutes remaining in the game against Brazil for serious foul play.
[edit] 1986 World Cup
Maradona captained the Argentine national team to victory in the 1986 FIFA World Cup, winning the final against West Germany. Throughout the 1986 World Cup, Maradona asserted his dominance and was the most dynamic player of the tournament. He played every minute of every Argentina game, scored 5 goals and made 5 assists. However, it was the two goals he scored in a 2-1 quarter-final win against England which cemented his legend.
Replays showed that the first goal was scored with the aid of his hand. Maradona was coyly evasive, describing it as "a little with the head of Maradona and a little with the hand of God." The play became known as the "Hand of God," or "la mano de Dios." Ultimately, on 22 August 2005 Maradona acknowledged on his television show that he hit the ball with his hand purposely, and that he immediately knew the goal was illegitimate. He recalled thinking right after the goal that
“
I was waiting for my teammates to embrace me, and no one came . . . I told them, 'Come hug me, or the referee isn't going to allow it.'[9]
”
In contrast, Maradona's second goal was a technically pure display of Maradona's astonishing dribbling ability. He picked up the ball in his own half, swiveled around and ran more than half the length of the field, dribbling past five English players: (Glenn Hoddle, Peter Reid, Kenny Sansom, Terry Butcher, and Terry Fenwick) and goalkeeper Peter Shilton. This goal was voted the Goal of the Century in a 2002 online poll conducted by FIFA. In 2002, the two goals were ranked 6th in the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments by the UK's Channel 4 television channel.
Maradona followed this with two more goals in the semifinal against Belgium. In the final, the opposing West German side attempted to contain him by double-marking, but he nevertheless found the space to give the final service to Jorge Burruchaga for the winning goal. Argentina beat West Germany 3-2 and Maradona lifted the World Cup trophy after dominating the tournament in an historic fashion.
[edit] 1990 World Cup
Maradona captained Argentina again in the 1990 FIFA World Cup. An ankle injury affected his overall performance, and he was much less dominant than four years earlier. Argentina were almost eliminated in the first round, only qualifying in third position from their group. In the round of 16 match against Brazil, a Maradona run from his own half set up the opportunity for Claudio Caniggia to score the game's only goal. Argentina then faced Yugoslavia in the quarterfinal round, the match ending 0-0 after 120 minutes, and Argentina advancing on penalty kicks, despite Maradona missing one of the penalties in the shootout. The semifinal against the host nation Italy was also resolved on penalties after a 1-1 draw; this time, Maradona was successful with his effort. In the final, Argentina lost 1-0 to West Germany, the only goal being a penalty by Andreas Brehme in the 85th minute after a controversial foul on Rudi Voller.
[edit] 1994 World Cup
At the 1994 FIFA World Cup Maradona played in two games, scoring one goal against Greece, before being sent home after failing a drug test for ephedrine doping. In his autobiography, Maradona argued that the test result was due to his personal trainer giving him the power drink Rip Fuel. His claim was that the U.S. version, unlike the Argentine one, contained the chemical and that, having run out of his Argentinian dosage, his trainer unwittingly bought the U.S. formula. FIFA subsequently expelled him from USA '94 and the Argentinians, affected by his absence, went home in the second round. Maradona has also separately claimed that he had an agreement with FIFA, on which the organization reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play. According to Maradona, this was so that the World Cup would not lose prestige because of his absence. This allegation was never proved, and many fans attribute his comment ("they cut off my legs") to his anger at being suspended.
[edit] Retirement and honours
In 2000, Maradona published his autobiography Yo Soy El Diego ("I am The Diego"), which became an instant bestseller[10] in his home country. Two years later, Maradona donated the Cuban royalties of his book to "the Cuban people and Fidel."[11]
FIFA conducted a fan poll on the Internet in 2000, to elect the Player of the Century. Maradona finished top of the poll with 53.6% of the vote, due mostly to a huge mobilization of fans in Argentina. Subsequently, however, and contrary to the original announcement of how the award would be decided, FIFA appointed a "Football Family" committee of football experts that voted to award Pelé the title. Maradona protested at the change in procedure, and declared he would not attend the ceremony if Pelé replaced him. Eventually, two awards were made, one to each of the pair. Maradona accepted his prize, but left the ceremony without waiting to see Pelé receive his accolade.[1]
Maradona at the Soccer Aid friendly match in 2006, after losing weight
In 2001, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) asked FIFA for authorization to retire the jersey number 10 for Maradona. FIFA did not grant the request, even though Argentine officials have maintained that FIFA hinted that it would.[12]
Maradona has won other fan polls, including a 2002 FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the best goal ever scored in a World Cup; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team.
Argentinos Juniors named its stadium after Maradona on December 26, 2003.
On 22 June 2005, it was announced that Maradona would return to Boca Juniors as a sports vice president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disappointing 2004–05 season, which coincided with Boca's centenary).[13] His contract began 1 August 2005, and one of his first recommendations proved to be very effective: he was the one who decided to hire Alfio Basile as the new coach. With Maradona fostering a close relationship with the players, Boca went on to win the 2005 Apertura title, the 2006 Clausura title, the 2005 Copa Sudamericana and the 2005 Recopa Sudamericana.
On 15 August 2005, Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, La Noche del 10 ("The Night of the no. 10"). His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences. In subsequent evenings, he led the ratings on all occasions but one. Most guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business, including Zidane, Ronaldo and Hernán Crespo, but also included interviews with other notable personalities such as Fidel Castro and Mike Tyson.
On August 26, 2006, it was announced that Maradona was quitting his position in the club Boca Juniors because of disagreements with the AFA, who selected Basile to be the new coach of the Argentina National Football Team.[14]
The award-winning Serbian filmmaker Emir Kusturica is preparing a documentary about Maradona's life, entitled Maradona. The film is currently in post-production, and its release is expected in 2007. Italian-Australian actor Marco Leonardi has been confirmed to play the footballer in the film.
In September 2006, Maradona, in his famous blue and white number 10, was the captain for Argentina in a three-day World Cup of Indoor Football tournament in Spain. Against Spain, Maradona set up the first goal for Argentina with a lob over the top of the defense for his teammate to head it home.
Latest News
Latest News
I know my batting : Sachin
Jan 31, 2007Having silenced his critics with a classy one-day international century, Sachin Tendulkar today said he had been in the game long enough to know about his batting and never paid heed to others views. "I always bat as I feel is the correct way to bat. I have played long enough to know what is good for me. I do not want to know what others are thinking," Tendulkar said after India's 160-run win in the fourth and final one-dayer against the West Indies here. Tendulkar, who faced criticism during India's tour of South Africa, hit a 76-ball 100 for his 41st one-day hundred. "I always knew that I was batting well and getting decent scores, but somehow was not converting them into big scores. It was important for us today," said the Mumbaikar who was adjudged Man of the Match as well as the series which India won 3-1.
Sachin Tendulkar signs up with Canon
Nov 7, 2006Sachin Tendulkar has signed another multi-million dollar deal even as Team India gets ready to rake in more moollah with the 2007 World Cup. He will now feature as the global brand ambassador of Japanese digital imaging solutions company Canon. Tendulkar's 'disconnect' with Airtel had hogged the headlines recently, but that's something the Japanese camera makers are not too worried about "Right now, we need to make a strong brand recognition," said Alok Bharadwaj, VP, Canon India. The new deal will see the Master Blaster endorse the brand along with tennis star Maria Sharapova.
Sachin hits out at Aussies
Nov 6, 2006Sachin Tendulkar has indirectly hit out at triumphant Australian captain Ricky Ponting and his teammates' behaviour during the prize distribution ceremony after the ICC Champions Trophy final against the West Indies at the Brabourne Stadium. Eager to take hold of the trophy and pose for the cameras with his teammates, Ponting was seen tapping BCCI President Sharad Pawar on the shoulder as a gesture to leave the stage. Tendulkar, saying he had heard about the incident from others, termed it an unpleasant experience and "uncalled for" behaviour against a person who was dear to all the cricketers. "I wasn't watching the proceedings because I was traveling, but from what I heard it was an unpleasant experience which was uncalled for ," the ace batsman said. "Firstly, it should not have happened. It's important to show respect to the person who is so dear to the cricketers and is involved with cricket. So it's good that we avoid such incidents," he said in response to a specific query.
Shane Warne picks Tendulkar, Lara as best batsmen
Oct 1, 2005Having reached the twilight of his career, spin wizard Shane Warne yearns for a Test hundred even as he picks Sachin Tendulkar and Brian Lara as the two best batsmen of his era and hardest to bowl at. "I’m proud of what I’ve achieved in cricket. I don’t usually set too many personal goals, but a Test hundred is still something I’d like. I’ve messed up my six best chances," Warne told ‘Observer’ sports monthly in an interview. "There are a lot of statistics linked to me, most of which I don’t worry about - being hit for the most sixes in international cricket, for example - while having the most Test wickets is obviously great. "The one statistic that does annoy me is having the most Test runs in the history of the game without a hundred. I don’t like that." The 37-year-old world’s highest Test wicket-taker interestingly holds the record of accumulating most Test runs (2958) without having scored a hundred. His highest has been 99 he scored in Perth in 2001-02 against New Zealand. He had scored 11 fifties and has a batting average of 16.61. Warne also said India’s master blaster Sachin Tendulkar and current West Indies captain Brian Lara were the hardest batsmen to bowl at. "The hardest batsmen would be Brian Lara and Sachin Tendulkar, the two best of my era," said the Hampshire captain. He, however, said South African Daryll Cullinan was his favourite prey batsman and thought he could get him out every ball.
All eyes on Sachins Tendulkar as crucial tri-series starts
Aug 13, 2005All eyes will be on Sachin Tendulkar as the Indian team’s 2006-07 cricket season starts with the Unitech Cup triangular series, which will begin with a Sri Lanka-South Africa match here Monday. Tendulkar will be the centre of attraction as he is making a comeback after a right shoulder injury that forced him to miss 14 one-day internationals (ODIs) and four Tests in his four-and-half-month absence since March when he was operated upon in London. The 33-year-old maestro will, however, not be seen in action here till Wednesday when India play their first match against Sri Lanka, a day-night affair at the R. Premadasa Stadium, one of the two venues of the seven-match competition. Captain Rahul Dravid acknowledged that Tendulkar’s mere presence in the team in enough to boost the players. India, now ranked fourth on the International Cricket Council’s ODI Championship table, badly need Tendulkar as their fine ODI run was checked by the West Indies in May. India, then ranked third, lost 1-4 in the Caribbean and slipped by one place.
I know my batting : Sachin
Jan 31, 2007Having silenced his critics with a classy one-day international century, Sachin Tendulkar today said he had been in the game long enough to know about his batting and never paid heed to others views. "I always bat as I feel is the correct way to bat. I have played long enough to know what is good for me. I do not want to know what others are thinking," Tendulkar said after India's 160-run win in the fourth and final one-dayer against the West Indies here. Tendulkar, who faced criticism during India's tour of South Africa, hit a 76-ball 100 for his 41st one-day hundred. "I always knew that I was batting well and getting decent scores, but somehow was not converting them into big scores. It was important for us today," said the Mumbaikar who was adjudged Man of the Match as well as the series which India won 3-1.
Sachin Tendulkar signs up with Canon
Nov 7, 2006Sachin Tendulkar has signed another multi-million dollar deal even as Team India gets ready to rake in more moollah with the 2007 World Cup. He will now feature as the global brand ambassador of Japanese digital imaging solutions company Canon. Tendulkar's 'disconnect' with Airtel had hogged the headlines recently, but that's something the Japanese camera makers are not too worried about "Right now, we need to make a strong brand recognition," said Alok Bharadwaj, VP, Canon India. The new deal will see the Master Blaster endorse the brand along with tennis star Maria Sharapova.
Sachin hits out at Aussies
Nov 6, 2006Sachin Tendulkar has indirectly hit out at triumphant Australian captain Ricky Ponting and his teammates' behaviour during the prize distribution ceremony after the ICC Champions Trophy final against the West Indies at the Brabourne Stadium. Eager to take hold of the trophy and pose for the cameras with his teammates, Ponting was seen tapping BCCI President Sharad Pawar on the shoulder as a gesture to leave the stage. Tendulkar, saying he had heard about the incident from others, termed it an unpleasant experience and "uncalled for" behaviour against a person who was dear to all the cricketers. "I wasn't watching the proceedings because I was traveling, but from what I heard it was an unpleasant experience which was uncalled for ," the ace batsman said. "Firstly, it should not have happened. It's important to show respect to the person who is so dear to the cricketers and is involved with cricket. So it's good that we avoid such incidents," he said in response to a specific query.
Shane Warne picks Tendulkar, Lara as best batsmen
Oct 1, 2005Having reached the twilight of his career, spin wizard Shane Warne yearns for a Test hundred even as he picks Sachin Tendulkar and Brian Lara as the two best batsmen of his era and hardest to bowl at. "I’m proud of what I’ve achieved in cricket. I don’t usually set too many personal goals, but a Test hundred is still something I’d like. I’ve messed up my six best chances," Warne told ‘Observer’ sports monthly in an interview. "There are a lot of statistics linked to me, most of which I don’t worry about - being hit for the most sixes in international cricket, for example - while having the most Test wickets is obviously great. "The one statistic that does annoy me is having the most Test runs in the history of the game without a hundred. I don’t like that." The 37-year-old world’s highest Test wicket-taker interestingly holds the record of accumulating most Test runs (2958) without having scored a hundred. His highest has been 99 he scored in Perth in 2001-02 against New Zealand. He had scored 11 fifties and has a batting average of 16.61. Warne also said India’s master blaster Sachin Tendulkar and current West Indies captain Brian Lara were the hardest batsmen to bowl at. "The hardest batsmen would be Brian Lara and Sachin Tendulkar, the two best of my era," said the Hampshire captain. He, however, said South African Daryll Cullinan was his favourite prey batsman and thought he could get him out every ball.
All eyes on Sachins Tendulkar as crucial tri-series starts
Aug 13, 2005All eyes will be on Sachin Tendulkar as the Indian team’s 2006-07 cricket season starts with the Unitech Cup triangular series, which will begin with a Sri Lanka-South Africa match here Monday. Tendulkar will be the centre of attraction as he is making a comeback after a right shoulder injury that forced him to miss 14 one-day internationals (ODIs) and four Tests in his four-and-half-month absence since March when he was operated upon in London. The 33-year-old maestro will, however, not be seen in action here till Wednesday when India play their first match against Sri Lanka, a day-night affair at the R. Premadasa Stadium, one of the two venues of the seven-match competition. Captain Rahul Dravid acknowledged that Tendulkar’s mere presence in the team in enough to boost the players. India, now ranked fourth on the International Cricket Council’s ODI Championship table, badly need Tendulkar as their fine ODI run was checked by the West Indies in May. India, then ranked third, lost 1-4 in the Caribbean and slipped by one place.
Sachin - God of Modern Cricket
Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar (born April 24, 1973) is an Indian cricketer, widely considered to be one of the greatest batsmen of all time. He currently holds the records for the most cumulative runs in One-Day Internationals, and the most number of centuries scored in both One-day Internationals and Test cricket. He made his international debut against Pakistan in 1989 at the age of sixteen, becoming India's youngest Test player. Although primarily a top-order batsman, Tendulkar has often proved to be a useful and effective slow bowler. He received India's highest sporting honour, the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna in the year 1997-1998 and the civilian award Padma Shri in 1999. His cricketing and batting abilities are widely regarded as genius by many stalwarts of the game. For instance, Sir Donald Bradman, the Australian great said of Sachin, "He reminds me of myself". He is affectionately known as The Little Master by his adoring fans.
Sachin's Latest World Record
35!!
Dec 9, 2005India's Sachin Tendulkar celebrated becoming cricket's most prolific Test century scorer when he hit his 35th ton against Sri Lanka. Tendulkar brought up the world record with a single off Chaminda Vaas in fading light as play ended on the first day of the second Test in Delhi. He surpasses the record held by compatriot Sunil Gavaskar. India ended the day on 245-3 with VVS Laxman hitting 69 and Sourav Ganguly unbeaten on 39. Tendulkar, who had not been in great batting form since returning from a six-month injury absence, took 177 balls for his century, hitting 13 fours and a six along the way. And he reached the milestone in 125 Tests, the same amount Gavaskar took to score 34 centuries.
Sachin's Latest World Record
35!!
Dec 9, 2005India's Sachin Tendulkar celebrated becoming cricket's most prolific Test century scorer when he hit his 35th ton against Sri Lanka. Tendulkar brought up the world record with a single off Chaminda Vaas in fading light as play ended on the first day of the second Test in Delhi. He surpasses the record held by compatriot Sunil Gavaskar. India ended the day on 245-3 with VVS Laxman hitting 69 and Sourav Ganguly unbeaten on 39. Tendulkar, who had not been in great batting form since returning from a six-month injury absence, took 177 balls for his century, hitting 13 fours and a six along the way. And he reached the milestone in 125 Tests, the same amount Gavaskar took to score 34 centuries.
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